Algae May Produce Hydrogen For Fuel

Researchers at Argonne National Laboratories believe that algae can be modified to become an efficient producer of hydrogen. Some varieties of algae contain hydrogenase, which emits hydrogen as a by-product of photosynthesis. The natural efficiency of hydrogen production for these plants is around .1%.

By working with genetically modified algae, depriving the plants of sulphur and adding copper, the plants have increased their ability to produce hydrogen. If the modifications eventually result in a hydrogen production rate of 5% to 10%, the plants could become a viable, readily renewable source of hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles.

Algae have several advantages over other organic fuel sources, like corn. Algae can be grown in a closed system, which opens up a variety of locations in which it can be produced. Large production facilities can be constructed on otherwise unusable land, meaning that production facilities don’t have to compete with other potential occupants.

Right now, corn production for biofuel competes with corn production for food. The overall effect has been to diminish the available supply of each and to raise the price of the corn that is produced. Currently, corn prices exceed $6 per bushel, reducing its economic attractiveness as a biofuel ingredient

The amount of space needed to produce significant quantities of algae is significantly smaller than that needed to produce corn. Researchers at the University of California estimate that the US would need 25,000 square kilometers of land to for hydrogen production via algae. This is less than one-tenth the space the US now devotes to the production of soybeans.

The next step in the research is to determine whether the enzyme the algae use to create hydrogen can be introduced into the photosynthesis process. The ANL team is confident that they can achieve their research goals.

Photo Credit: Gavin Mills

FreedomCAR Reports On Fuel Cell Progress

The National Research Council has released a report detailing the progress and challenges still faced by the FreedomCAR and Fuel Partnership, a research and policy joint venture among the US Department of Energy, the three major domestic US automakers, and five major energy companies. The initiative is exploring the benefits and challenges of transitioning from a petroleum-based transportation structure to a hydrogen-based one, and seeks to develop technology that will allow the automakers to decide on the feasibility of a hydrogen alternative by 2015.

The venture has focused on all aspects of auto manufacturing, design and operation, as well as the production, storage, transportation and distribution of hydrogen. The report details some of the technological advancements in the past two years that support the move to hydrogen, as well as some of the persistent challenges. The purpose of the report was to assess progress to date, and verify that the goals of the program are still viable and are being appropriately funded.

Areas of progress include the successful introduction of biofuels, and advances in car batteries that will support a transitional hybrid-electric and all-electric vehicle market. While progress has been made in the creation of Li-ion batteries, their manufacturing cost remains about twice as high as the group’s target levels. Additionally, new research is needed on other high-energy battery formulations to determine whether the batteries – whether they’re Li-ion or another technology – can be mass-produced easily.

The report recommended additional research in the materials used in fuel cell membranes and membrane electrode assemblies, and expressed the need for significant improvements in the durability and cost of these components. According to the report, this was one research area in which a reallocation of research dollars was needed to ensure that the venture’s goals are appropriately met.

The report also updated progress on hydrogen storage for vehicles. Regardless of its form, the hydrogen needed for a 300-mile refueling cycle takes up more space and requires heavier storage tanks than a comparable volume of gasoline. The report concludes that the initiative’s goals on weight, storage capacity and cost will remain unmet without the development of yet-unknown technology. The initiative is still supporting basic research in this area.

Finally, the report recommended extending the initiative’s existence until 2030 or 2035, to ensure that research goals and transitional issues are addressed appropriately.

Google Shares Operational Data On PHEV Conversions In Its Fleet

Google is reporting performance data on six fleet vehicles the company converted to PHEVs. The conversions, four Toyota Priuses and two Ford Escapes, cost about $15,000 apiece. The overall annual savings on the converted PHEVs was disappointing and ranged from about $160 to $250, depending upon the vehicle.

The plug-in Priuses reduced their gasoline consumption by only 88 gallons over non-converted Priuses in the Google fleet, but charted about 425 gallons less than a conventional gasoline-powered fleet vehicle. The PHEVs did record much better fuel economy at 66.2 miles per gallon, compared with 44.6 MPG for the non-convert Priuses. They also showed a substantial reduction in CO2 emissions compared to non-converted Priuses and conventional gasoline engines.

Google did indicate that their fleet vehicles are used primarily for short trips, which would lower fuel-economy statistics. On longer trips, the PHEV converts can register anywhere between 70 and 100 mpg.

Based upon the cost of the conversion, an assumption that a gallon of gas would cost $3, and the cost of electricity, the company would not break even on the conversion for 95 years, but Google cautions that its motive in pursuing the PHEV conversions was not cost savings, but rather a reduction in carbon emissions.

It’s also important to note that factory-built PHEV vehicles are expected to cost less than aftermarket conversions, and gas prices may move toward $4 per gallon, which could reduce the break even time on a PHEV to seven or eight years. Additionally, advances in battery technology that would enable a PHEV to travel farther between recharges could reduce the overall operational cost and make a PHEV more economically viable.

One more consideration is the potential institution of so-called “carbon taxes” which would be levied against vehicles that emit high volumes of CO2 gas. No such tax proposals are in the works in the US, but states are increasingly regulating carbon emissions. California, Connecticut and New York have all recently passed more stringent emissions requirements for vehicles sold in those states, and additional states are considering imposing similar restrictions. Penalties for failing to meet local CO2 standards could contribute to a generalized move toward hybrid technologies, which would in turn lower their production costs.

Large Corporations Getting In On Hybrid Research and Testing

Large corporations like Exxon Mobile and Coca Cola are participating in hybrid vehicle research that may lead to longer battery life and better evaluations of vehicle performance.

Exxon Mobile is extending product development for a battery technology it initially created for mobile phones, to a variation that could be used in hybrid vehicle batteries. The specific component is a separator film used in Li-ion battery technologies. Separator films are used to prevent chemicals inside the battery from coming into contact and creating an uncontrolled reaction. Membrane failures have been implicated in cascade failures inside Li-ion batteries that can lead to explosions and fires.

Maintaining membrane integrity in the Li-ion’ battery’s high temperature environment is critical to battery safety. Exxon Mobile’s membrane can withstand internal temperatures up to 374°. Exxon Mobile is working with the new Electrovaya Maya 300, which is expected to hit the market later in 2008. According to the Wall Street Journal, Exxon Mobile will build a new plant to produce the membrane. The plant, which is expected to cost $300 million, will be located in South Korea, but research work on the film will continue in Japan and the United States. Exxon Mobile is hoping to supply the major automakers with the film within the next ten years.

On the other end of the research setting, Coca Cola Consolidated is working with Duke Energy to test plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The companies will convert some of their fleet vehicles to PHEVs using aftermarket kits. Coca Cola Consolidated currently operates one of the largest hybrid fleets in the country and will convert three of its current Toyota Prius cars to PHEVs. The technology has the promise to allow vehicles to travel more than one hundred miles on a single gallon of gas. The savings in fuel costs for large fleets is obvious and the companies are hoping to spur commercial production of PHEVs.

Photo courtesy of Exxon Mobile

Fuel Cell Vehicles Around The Corner, MB Does Cold Weather Testing

According to the major Japanese automakers, the adoption of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is still more than five years away. At a symposium on FCVs held earlier in March, representatives from Honda, Nissan and Toyota agreed that FVCs won’t be widely available until 2015. The automakers cite primary concerns over the vehicles’ durability, production costs and the infrastructure support for the delivery of hydrogen.

The cost of FCVs is still prohibitively high and would need to be reduced by 90 percent of its current costs to enter mass production. Once in mass production, the automakers believe that additional efficiencies could reduce the cost of FCVs by another 90 percent, making the technology commercially viable.

Aside from these issues, FCV’s also face the lack of hydrogen production, storage and delivery infrastructure. Currently, there are promising technologies that could lead to on-board hydrogen production and storage, but they are years away from being commercially viable.

The durability of the vehicle’s hydrogen fuel cell power plant raise safety concerns as well. According to the manufacturers, new materials must be developed and tested that will reduce corrosion within the vehicle’s hydrogen power train. Additionally, membrane technology that resists being dissolved in the potential cycle must be perfected.

Another challenge that faces FCVs: the ability to monitor the fuel-cell reactions. Currently the industry proposes using regulated technologies like X-rays to detect irregularities in hydrogen reactions. If the measurement techniques are approved, FCVs could be in large-scale production by 2015 and FCVs could have a life expectancy of as much as 10 years.

These concerns aren’t stopping Mercedes-Benz from conducting cold-weather testing on its FCV, expected to hit the consumer market in 2010. In its tests, MB has discovered few problems with cold starts, but found that fuel-cell vehicles require recalibrated ESP systems. Although it doesn’t see a very bright immediate future for FCVs, Honda will introduce the FCX Clarity FCV later in 2008.

Photo Credit: Pierre Benker

USDOE Licenses Li-ion Battery Technology

The US Department of Energy has reached agreement with the Toda Kogyo corporation to mass produce novel cathodes for Li-ion batteries. The cathodes will be used to create safer batteries for laptops, cell phones, and hybrid-electric vehicles. The research on the new cathode materials was conducted at the Argonne National Laboratory and will improve the safety and lifespan of Li-ion batteries over conventional cobalt cathodes.

The new cathodes are a composite of lithium and manganese mixed-metal oxides. In addition to providing better overall life and safety, the cathodes offer a longer mean time between charge cycles. The lithium-metal oxide composite is inherently more stable than cobalt-based cathodes. The composite is inactive, which means that it reduces side-reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen and reduce the cathode’s lifespan and raise safety issues. The new composite cathodes allow the cells to be recharged at a higher voltage and improve the battery’s energy storage capacity.

The research was intended to improve the safety and operational performance of vehicle batteries and is the latest in a number of cathode, anode and electrolyte improvements to emerge from Argonne. To meet the production demands for the new technology, Toda will use existing plants in Japan, as well as a newly acquired plant in Detroit. Toda will also use production capacity at an existing facility in Sarnia, Ontario to produce raw materials needed for battery production. Toda’s current production capacity for the materials exceeds 4,000 metric tons.

Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

GM’s 2nd-Gen Mild Hybrid Powertrain

GM has indicated that it is ready to release the second generation of its mild-hybrid powertrain. The new system is still a belt-alternator-starter (BAS)-based system, but is smaller and replaces the nickel-metal hydride battery with a Li-ion cell. The company has been locked in a well-publicized Li-ion battle with Toyota, in its effort to bring an all-electric Li-ion-powered vehicle to market. Both companies had been hoping to have Li-ion models available for the 2009 model year, but each has recently announced that Li-ion based vehicles will be introduced in 2010 instead.

GM’s second-generation mild-hybrid system is smaller and contains a more powerful motor, works with gasoline, flex-fuel and diesel engines, and can be easily adapted for rear-wheel drive vehicles, allowing the company to introduce the system a wider variety of its entry-level vehicles, including those in the Saturn and Chevrolet lines. Saab is also using the GM power train for its 9-X BioHybrid concept vehicle.

According to the company, the improved powertrain system will deliver an increase in fuel economy of 20 percent over its conventional internal combustion engines. GM Chairman Rick Waggoner said that the powertrain will be available in GM’s 2010 hybrid vehicles and the company expects to produce at least 100,000 units annually. Waggoner indicated that the affordability of the technology, which promises significant reductions in both gasoline consumption and carbon emissions, is based on the company’s sales volume and expects prices to drop if the hybrid models are widely embraced.

GM offers two separate hybrid power systems. The mild hybrid system, which is being replaced, is currently available in the Malibu and the Saturn Aura and Vue hybrid models. The mild hybrid system is not as efficient as the two-mode hybrid system, currently used in the company’s larger hybrid Tahoe, Yukon and Escalade models.

Toyota To Form Battery R & D Unit

Toyota is reportedly working on the next-generation of hybrid batteries, which will enable a vehicle to travel 50 miles on a single charge. The new technology could be based on a zinc-air formulation, but Toyota has not confirmed this research direction yet. Zinc-air batteries are currently used to power very small devices, like hearing aids.

Toyota hopes to have the new battery ready for production by 2020. That time line coincides with the company’s goal of having a hybrid vehicle in each of its model lines.

Continued improvement in battery technology is part of the company’s strategy to retain its position as an automotive hybrid technology leader. To direct its research and development, the company will form a new battery technology group later in 2008.

As an intermediate step, Toyota has announced that it plans to incorporate Li-ion batteries in its hybrid vehicles in 2009 or 2010. Currently, Toyota uses nickel-metal hydride batteries in its electric hybrid vehicles. The charge-carrying capacity of Li-ion batteries is much greater, however the Li-ion technology has been dogged by safety issues, including overheating and catastrophic failures.

None of the automakers that plan to use Li-ion cells has successfully addressed the issue of battery ownership and replacement costs. Mercedes-Benz announced that it will become the first auto manufacturer to use Li-ion batteries in a production vehicle. The company did not specifically address battery ownership in its announcement.

The new M-B S400 diesel-electric hybrid will feature a Li-ion battery pack that is integrated into the vehicle’s climate control system to keep the batteries operating in a temperature range between 60° F and 95°F. Uncontrolled rises in temperature are though to encourage the breakdown of a barrier membrane within a Li-ion cell, which results in catastrophic failure and may also lead to battery explosions. The issue of Li-ion safety is leading manufacturers to develop new technologies designed to improve the operational safety of the cells without substantially increasing the cost.

Hydrogen Research Pays Off

Researchers from UCLA have determined the mechanism that causes sodium alanate to release hydrogen at low temperatures in the presence of titanium. The low-temperature release was first described in 1997, but no one could sufficiently explain the role of titanium in the process.

By simulating the molecular dynamics of the reaction, the researchers discovered that aluminum diffusion is the limiter to how much hydrogen can be released. The addition of titanium facilitates the diffusion and therefore allows hydrogen to be released at lower temperatures.

The method used by the researchers may help facilitate the development of a practical hydrogen production and storage system for fuel cells and other hydrogen-powered devices. According to the researchers, sodium alanate does not generate enough hydrogen to provide a practical fuel source, but the method used to explain its behavior may lead researchers to superior materials and catalysts.

In a separate development, Gunze, Ltd., has announced the creation of a solid electrolyte hydrogen sensor that can be used at room temperature. Current catalytic hydrogen sensors must be heated to a temperature of 300° C because they detect the amount of heat generated by hydrogen combustion.

The new sensor detects the concentration of hydrogen ions that are freed by the action of the electrolyte and a platinum catalyst, eliminating the need for combustion measurements. In addition, the new sensor consumes less power and offers a faster response time than conventional catalytic hydrogen sensors.

The new sensor, which runs on a 12V battery, could be integrated into fuel cell vehicles, stationary fuel cells and hydrogen stations within two to three years. Its ultra-low power consumption means that the sensor can operate even on dry cells. The company is tentatively aiming to bring the sensor to market for less than $950 per unit. The development is interesting because a single fuel cell vehicle requires four sensors, which add substantially to the overall cost of the vehicle.

Onboard Dehydrogenation Reactor

A research team working for Hrein Energy in Japan has succeeded in powering a vehicle with hydrogen extracted from organic hydride. The team developed a prototype on-board dehydrogenation reactor and used it in a driving test with a modified Nissan March. The team consisted of personnel from Hrein, Futaba Industrial Co., Ito Racing Service Co Ltd, and a professor emeritus from Hokkaido University.

The on-board processor uses waste heat from the catalytic converter to isolate hydrogen from organic hydride. The free hydrogen was then mixed with intake air and used to power the vehicle’s 1.2L gasoline-hydrogen hybrid engine. The hydrogen constituted as much as 5 percent of the vehicle’s intake air. Even with a small volume increase of hydrogen in the intake air, the vehicle’s mileage rating increased by about 30 percent, due in large part because the combustibility of hydrogen exceeds that of gasoline.

The on-board processor creates free hydrogen and toluene, an aromatic hydrocarbon commonly used as an industrial solvent and in paint thinners. It is also used as an octane booster in gasoline and a fuel for high-performance racing engines.

Dehydrogenation reactors are typically large, but Hrein Energy has downsized this prototype to fit on an automobile. The reactor requires extremely high temperatures - 300° C - to operate. The operating temperature is achievable, but it creates a large energy loss. This is mitigated by the use of waste heat from the catalytic converter.

The size of the prototype reactor is an issue. While it is small enough to fit on a car, it’s too small to produce a useful amount of hydrogen for long-term operations. Hrein Energy’s ultimate goal is to use the technology to power fuel-cell vehicles, but waste heat production from fuel-cell vehicles is too low to provide proper temperature for the dehydrogenation reactor to work properly. As a supplemental device, however, it can increase the efficiency of a gasoline engine substantially.

Hrein Energy’s next step is to develop a prototype system for a 1.5L commercial vehicle in time for the G8 Summit in Hokkaido in the summer of 2008. The company is also looking at other methods of generating and storing hydrogen as organic hydride.

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